Vol. 25 No. 3 (2021)
REVIEWS

From pulmonary embolism to chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: risk factors

PDF (Русский)
  • O.Ya. Vasiltseva,
  • A.G. Edemskiy,
  • D.S. Grankin,
  • E.N. Kliver,
  • A.M. Chernyavskiy
O.Ya. Vasiltseva
Meshalkin National Medical Research Center, Novosibirsk
A.G. Edemskiy
Meshalkin National Medical Research Center, Novosibirsk
D.S. Grankin
Meshalkin National Medical Research Center, Novosibirsk
E.N. Kliver
Meshalkin National Medical Research Center, Novosibirsk
Bio
A.M. Chernyavskiy
Meshalkin National Medical Research Center, Novosibirsk
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21688/1681-3472-2021-3-11-19

Published 2021-09-28

Keywords

  • chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension,
  • pulmonary embolism

How to Cite

Vasiltseva, O., Edemskiy, A., Grankin, D., Kliver, E., & Chernyavskiy, A. (2021). From pulmonary embolism to chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: risk factors. Patologiya Krovoobrashcheniya I Kardiokhirurgiya, 25(3), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.21688/1681-3472-2021-3-11-19

Copyright (c) 2021 Vasiltseva O.Ya., Edemskiy A.G., Grankin D.S., Kliver E.N., Chernyavskiy A.M.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension is a long-term consequence of acute pulmonary embolism. Gradual obstruction of the pulmonary arteries and secondary changes in the pulmonary microcirculation over time cause progressive increases in pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary artery pressure that can result in severe right heart failure. This article provides an overview of pulmonary embolism and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension scientific literature and national guidelines. We focus on disease and recurrence risk factors and outline future directions of research to improve short- and long-term patient outcomes.

Received 17 January 2021. Revised 1 March 2021. Accepted 19 April 2021.

Funding: The study did not have sponsorship.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

Contribution of the authors
Conception and study design: A.M. Chernyavskiy, A.G. Edemskiy, D.S. Grankin, E.N. Kliver
Drafting the article: O.Ya. Vasiltseva
Critical revision of the article: E.N. Kliver
Final approval of the version to be published: O.Ya. Vasiltseva, A.G. Edemskiy, D.S. Grankin, E.N. Kliver, A.M. Chernyavskiy

PDF (Русский)

References

  1. Konstantinides S.V., Meyer G., Becattini C., Bueno H., Geersing G.-J., Harjola V.-P., Huisman M.V., Humbert M., Jennings C.S., Jiménez D., Kucher N., Lang I.M., Lankeit M., Lorusso R., Mazzolai L., Meneveau N., Ní Áinle F., Prandoni P., Pruszczyk P., Righini M., Torbicki A., Van Belle E., Zamorano J.L.; The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS): The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Respir J. 2019;54(3):1901647. PMID: 31473594. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01647-2019
  2. Чазова И.Е., Мартынюк Т.В. Клинические рекомендации по диагностике и лечению хронической тромбоэмболической легочной гипертензии (I часть). Терапевтический архив. 2016;88(9):90-101. [Chazova I.E., Martynjuk T.V. Clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (Part 1). Terapevticheskij arhiv = Therapeutic archive. 2016;88(9):90-101. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.17116/terarkh201688990-101
  3. Чазова И.Е., Мартынюк Т.В. Клинические рекомендации по диагностике и лечению хронической тромбоэмболической легочной гипертензии (II часть). Терапевтический архив. 2016;88(10):63-73. [Chazova I.E., Martynjuk T.V. Clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (Part 2). Terapevticheskij arhiv = Therapeutic archive. 2016;88(10):63-73. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.17116/terarkh201688663-73
  4. Чазова И.Е., Мартынюк Т.В., Валиева З.С., Азизов В.А., Барбараш О.Л., Веселова Т.Н., Галявич А.С., Горбачевский С.В., Зелвеян П.А., Лазарева И.В., Мукаров М.А., Наконечников С.Н., Саидова М.А., Сарыбаев А.Ш., Стукалова О.В., Шалаев С.В., Шмальц А.А. Евразийские клинические рекомендации по диагностике и лечению легочной гипертензии. Евразийский кардиологический журнал. 2020;(1):78-122. [Chazova I.E., Martynyuk T.V., Valieva Z.S., Azizov V.A., Barbarash O.L., Veselova T.N., Galyavich A.S., Gorbachevsky S.V., Zelveian P.A., Lazareva I.V., Mukarov M.A., Nakonetchnikov S.N., Saidova M.A., Sarybaev A.S., Stukalova O.V., Shalaev S.V., Shmalts A.A. Eurasian clinical guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Eurasian Heart Journal. 2020;(1):78-122. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.38109/2225-1685-2020-1-78-122
  5. Андрияшкин А.В., Андрияшкин В.В., Арутюнов Г.П., Баринов В.Е., Бицадзе В.О., Бодыхов М.К., Бритов А.Н., Бутенко А.В., Вавилова Т.В., Воробьева Н.А., Восканян Ю.Э., Гавриленко А.В., Галстян Г.М., Гельфанд Б.Р., Гиляров М.Ю., Голубев Г.Ш., Замятин М.Н., Золотухин И.А., Кобалава Ж.Д., Кательницкий И.И., Копенкин С.С., Кузнецов М.Р., Леонтьев С.Г., Лобастов К.В., Лубнин А.Ю., Макацария А.Д., Моисеев В.С., Момот А.П., Острякова Е.В., Панченко Е.П., Переходов С.Н., Пирадов М.А., Поддубная И.В., Покровский А.В., Проценко Д.Н., Прудков М.И., Прядко С.И., Пырегов А.В., Решетняк Т.М., Рябинкина Ю.В., Сапелкин С.В., Семенова М.Н., Смирнов С.В., Соколов В.А., Стаховская Л.В., Стойко Ю.М., Сулимов В.А., Сухих Г.Т., Терещенко С.Н., Фокин А.А., Хруслов М.В., Шевела А.И., Шиманко А.И., Шулутко А.М., Явелов И.С., Яхонтов Д.И. Российские клинические рекомендации по диагностике, лечению и профилактике венозных тромбоэмболических осложнений (ВТЭО). Флебология. 2015;9(4-2):1-52. [Andrijashkin A.V., Andrijashkin V.V., Arutjunov G.P., Barinov V.E., Bicadze V.O., Bodyhov M.K., Britov A.N., Butenko A.V., Vavilova T.V., Vorobjova N.A., Voskanjan Ju.Je., Gavrilenko A.V., Galstjan G.M., Gelfand B.R., Giljarov M.Ju., Golubev G.Sh., Zamjatin M.N., Zolotuhin I.A., Kobalava Zh.D., Katelnickij I.I., Kopjonkin S.S., Kuznecov M.R., Leontev S.G., Lobastov K.V., Lubnin A.Ju., Makacarija A.D., Moiseev V.S., Momot A.P., Ostrjakova E.V., Panchenko E.P., Perehodov S.N., Piradov M.A., Poddubnaja I.V., Pokrovskij A.V., Procenko D.N., Prudkov M.I., Prjadko S.I., Pyregov A.V., Reshetnjak T.M., Rjabinkina Ju.V., Sapelkin S.V., Semjonova M.N., Smirnov S.V., Sokolov V.A., Stahovskaja L.V., Stojko Ju.M., Sulimov V.A., Suhih G.T., Tereshhenko S.N., Fokin A.A., Hruslov M.V., Shevela A.I., Shimanko A.I., Shulutko A.M., Javelov I.S., Jahontov D.I. Russian clinical guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Flebologiya = Phlebology. 2015;9(4-2):1-52. (In Russ.)]
  6. Heit J.A., O'Fallon W.M., Petterson T.M., Lohse C.M., Silverstein M.D., Mohr D.N., Melton L.J. 3rd. Relative impact of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(11):1245-1248. PMID: 12038942. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.162.11.1245
  7. White R.H. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107(23 Suppl 1):I4-I8. PMID: 12814979. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000078468.11849.66
  8. Kucher N., Rossi E., De Rosa M., Goldhaber S.Z. Massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2006;113(4):577-582. PMID: 16432055. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.592592
  9. Васильцева О.Я., Ворожцова И.Н., Карпов Р.С. Тромбоэмболия легочной артерии: по материалам 10-летнего городского госпитального Регистра. Томск: ООО Компания «Милон», 2016. 166 с. [Vasiltseva O.Ya., Vorozhtsova I.N., Karpov R.S. Pulmonary embolism city hospital register materials 10-years. Tomsk: Milon Publ.; 2016. 166 p. (In Russ.)]
  10. Howell M.D., Geraci J.M., Knowlton A.A. Congestive heart failure and outpatient risk of venous thromboembolism: a retrospective, case-control study. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001;54(8):810-816. PMID: 11470390. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0895-4356(00)00373-5
  11. Erkens P.M.G., Gandara E., Wells P., Shen A.Y.-H., Bose G., Le Gal G., Rodger M., Prins M.H., Carrier М. Safety of outpatient treatment in acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(11):2412-2417. PMID: 20735722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.04041.x
  12. Васильцева О.Я., Ворожцова И.Н., Лавров А.Г., Карпов Р.С. Оценка факторов неблагоприятного прогноза у пациентов с тромбоэмболией легочной артерии. Терапевтический архив. 2016;88(12):28-32. [Vasiltseva O.Y., Vorozhtsova I.N., Lavrov A.G., Karpov R.S. Estimation of poor prognostic factors in patients with pulmonary artery thromboembolism. Terapevticheskij arhiv = Therapeutic archive. 2016;88(12):28-32. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.17116/terarkh2016881228-32
  13. Ende-Verhaar Y.M., van den Hout W.B., Bogaard H.J., Meijboom L.J., Huisman M.V., Symersky P., Vonk-Noordegraaf A., Klok F.A. Healthcare utilization in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost. 2018;16(11):2168-2174. PMID: 30099844. https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.14266
  14. Miniati M., Monti S., Bottai M., Scoscia E., Bauleo C., Tonelli L., Dainelli A., Giuntini C. Survival and restoration of pulmonary perfusion in a long-term follow-up of patients after acute pulmonary embolism. Medicine (Baltimore). 2006;85(5):253-262. PMID: 16974210. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.md.0000236952.87590.c8
  15. Linnemann B., Zgouras D., Schindewolf M., Schwonberg J., Jarosch-Preusche M., Lindhoff-Last E. Impact of sex and traditional cardiovascular risk factors on the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism: results from the German MAISTHRO Registry. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2008;19(2):159-165. PMID: 18277138. https://doi.org/10.1097/MBC.0b013e3282f54558
  16. Arshad N., Bjøri E., Hindberg K., Isaksen T., Hansen J.-B., Brækkan S.K. Recurrence and mortality after first venous thromboembolism in a large population-based cohort. J Thromb Haemost. 2017;15(2):295-303. PMID: 27943560. https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.13587
  17. Яковлев В.Б., Яковлева М.В. Тромбоэмболия легочной артерии: патофизиология, диагностика, лечебная тактика. Consilium medicum. 2005;7(6):493-499. [Yakovlev V.B., Yakovleva M.V. Pulmonary embolism: pathophysiology, diagnostics, treatment. Consilium medicum. 2005;7(6):493-499. (In Russ.)]
  18. Heit J.A. Predicting the risk of venous thromboembolism recurrence. Am J Hematol. 2012;87(Suppl 1):S63-S67. PMID: 22367958; PMCID: PMC3383031. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.23128
  19. Cushman M., Tsai A.W., White R.H., Heckbert S.R., Rosamond W.D., Enright P., Folsom A.R. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in two cohorts: the longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Am J Med. 2004;117(1):19-25. PMID: 15210384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.01.018
  20. Willich S.N., Chuang L.-H., van Hout B., Gumbs P., Jimenez D., Kroep S., Bauersachs R., Monreal M., Agnelli G., Cohen A. Pulmonary embolism in Europe — Burden of illness in relationship to healthcare resource utilization and return to work. Thrombosis Research. 2018;170:181-191. PMID: 30199784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2018.02.009
  21. Чазова И.Е., Мартынюк Т.В. Проблемы диагностики и лечения хронической тромбоэмболической легочной гипертензии. Тихоокеанский медицинский журнал. 2017;(4):6-16. [Chazova I.E., Martynyuk T.V. Problems of diagnosis and treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Pacific Medical Journal. 2017;(4):6-16. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.17238/PmJ1609-1175.2017.4.6–16
  22. Wilkens H., Konstantinides S., Lang I.M., Bunck A.C., Gerges M., Gerhardt F., Grgic A., Grohé C., Guth S., Held M., Hinrichs J.B., Hoeper M.M., Klepetko W., Kramm T., Krüger U., Lankeit M., Meyer B.C., Olsson K.M., Schäfers H.-J., Schmidt M., Seyfarth H.-J., Ulrich S., Wiedenroth C.B., Mayer E. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH): Updated recommendations from the Cologne Consensus Conference 2018. Int J Cardiol. 2018;272S:69-78. PMID: 30195840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.08.079
  23. Klok F.A., Dzikowska‐Diduch O., Kostrubiec M., Vliegen H.W., Pruszczyk P., Hasenfuss G., Huisman M.V., Konstantinides S., Lankeit M. Derivation of a clinical prediction score for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost. 2016;14(1):121-128. PMID: 26509468. https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.13175
  24. Rivera-Lebron B., McDaniel M., Ahrar K., Alrifai A., Dudzinski D.M., Fanola C., Blais D., Janicke D., Melamed R., Mohrien K., Rozycki E., Ross Ch.B., Klein A.J., Rali P., Teman N.R., Yarboro L., Ichinose E., Sharma A.M., Bartos J.A., Elder M., Keeling B., Palevsky H., Naydenov S., Sen P., Amoroso N., Rodriguez-Lopez J.M., Davis G.A., Rosovsky R., Rosenfield K., Kabrhel C., Horowitz J., Giri J.S., Tapson V., Channick R., PERT Consortium. Diagnosis, treatment and follow up of acute pulmonary embolism: consensus practice from the PERT Consortium. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2019;25:1076029619853037. PMID: 31185730; PMCID: PMC6714903. https://doi.org/10.1177/1076029619853037
  25. Pepke-Zaba J., Delcroix M., Lang I., Mayer E., Jansa P., Ambroz D., Treacy C., D’Armini A.M., Morsolini M., Snijder R., Bresser P., Torbicki A., Kristensen B., Lewczuk J., Simkova I., Barbera J.A., de Perrot M., Hoeper M.M., Gaine S., Speich R., Gomez-Sanchez M.A., Kovacs G., Hamid A.M., Jais X., Simonneau G. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH): results from an international prospective registry. Circulation. 2011;124(18):1973-1981. PMID: 21969018. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.015008
  26. Lang I.M., Simonneau G., Pepke-Zaba J.W., Mayer E., Ambroz D., Blanco I., Torbicki A., Mellemkjaer S., Yaici A., Delcroix M. Factors associated with diagnosis and operability of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. A case-control study. Thromb Haemost. 2013;110(1):83-91. PMID: 23677493. https://doi.org/10.1160/TH13-02-0097
  27. Bonderman D., Wilkens H., Wakounig S., Schafers H.-J., Jansa P., Lindner J., Simkova I., Martischnig A.M., Dudczak J., Sadushi R., Skoro-Sajer N., Klepetko W., Lang I.M. Risk factors for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J. 2009;33(2):325-331. PMID: 18799507. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00087608
  28. Barco S., Woersching A.L., Spyropoulos A.C., Piovella F., Mahan C.E. European Union-28: An annualised cost-of-illness model for venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. 2016;115(4):800-808. PMID: 26607486. https://doi.org/10.1160/TH15-08-0670
  29. Cohen A.T., Agnelli G., Anderson F.A., Arcelus J.I., Bergqvist D., Brecht J.G., Greer I.A., Heit J.A., Hutchinson J.L., Kakkar A.K., Mottier D., Oger E., Samama M.-M., Spannagl M., VTE Impact Assessment Group in Europe (VITAE). Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in Europe. The number of VTE events and associated morbidity and mortality. Thromb Haemost. 2007;98(4):756-764. PMID: 17938798.
  30. Коков Л.С., Матвеев П.Д., Никитина О.В., Лопотовский П.Ю., Косолапов Д.А., Кудряшова Н.Е., Мигунова Е.В., Михайлов И.П., Шарифуллин Ф.А., Аязян Э. Применение тромболитической терапии и реолитической тромбэктомии в лечении тромбоэмболии легочной артерии. Ангиология и сосудистая хирургия. 2015;21(4):105-114. [Kokov L.S., Matveev P.D., Nikitina O.V., Lopotovskij P.Ju., Kosolapov D.A., Kudrjashova N.E., Migunova E.V., Mihailov I.P., Sharifullin F.A., Ajazjan É. Use of thrombolytic therapy and rheolytic thrombectomy in treatment of pulmonary artery thromboembolism. Angiology and Vascular Surgery. 2015;21(4):105-114. (In Russ.)]
  31. Садчиков Д.В., Богородский А.Ю., Зеулина Е.Е. Случай успешной интенсивной терапии у больного с рецидивирующей тромбоэмболией мелких ветвей легочной артерии. Пульмонология. 2015;25(6):743-746. [Sadchikov D.V., Bogorodskiy A.Yu., Zeulina E.E. A case of successful intensive care for a patient with recurrent non-massive pulmonary embolism. Pulmonologiya = Pulmonology. 2015;25(6):743-746. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.18093/0869-0189-2015-25-6-743-746
  32. Кочмарева Е.А., Кокорин В.А., Волкова А.Л., Гордеев И.Г., Велиев С.Н., Гудкова И.А. Предикторы краткосрочных осложнений тромбоэмболии легочной артерии высокого и промежуточного риска. Российский кардиологический журнал. 2017;(9):7-12. [Kochmareva E.A., Kokorin V.A., Volkova A.L., Gordeev I.G., Veliev S.N., Gudkova I.A. Predictors of short term outcomes in high and moderate risk pulmonary thromboembolism. Russian Journal of Cardiology. 2017;(9):7-12. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.15829/1560-4071-2017-9-7-12
  33. Чернявский М.А., Кудаев Ю.А., Чернов А.В., Жердев Н.Н., Чернова Д.В. Эндоваскулярные методы лечения при острой тромбоэмболии легочной артерии. Трансляционная медицина. 2018;5(4):5-11. [Chernyavskiy M.A., Kudaev Y.A., Chernov A.V., Zherdev N.N., Chernova D.V. Endovascular treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Translational Medicine. 2018;5(4):5-11. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.18705/2311-4495-2018-5-4-5-11
  34. Goldhaber S.Z., Visani L., De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet. 1999;353(9162):1386-1389. PMID: 10227218. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(98)07534-5
  35. Едемский А.Г., Иванов С.Н., Кливер Е.Н., Новикова Н.В., Галстян М.Г., Севастьянов А.В., Чернявский А.М. Путь пациента от острой тромбоэмболии легочной артерии до хронической тромбоэмболической легочной гипертензии: вопросы диагностики и лечения. Терапевтический архив. 2019;91(8):108-114. [Edemskiy A.G., Ivanov S.N., Kliver E.N., Novikova N.V., Galstyan M.G., Sevastyanov A.V., Cherniavsky A.M. Patient's way from acute pulmonary embolism to chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: diagnostic and treatment options. Terapevticheskii arkhiv = Therapeutic archive. 2019;91(8):108-114. (In Russ.)] https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2019.08.000316
  36. Хирургическое лечение хронической тромбоэмболической легочной гипертензии / Под общ. ред. А.М. Чернявского. Новосибирск: ФГБУ «НМИЦ им. ак. Е.Н. Мешалкина» Минздрава России; 2019. 318 с. [Chernyavskiy A.M., editor. Surgical treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Novosibirsk: Meshalkin National Medical Research Center; 2019. 318 p. (In Russ.)]
  37. Zhang M., Wang N., Zhai Zh., Zhang M., Zhou R., Liu Ya., Yang Yu. Incidence and risk factors of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Thorac Dis. 2018;10(8):4751-4763. PMID: 30233847; PMCID: PMC6129909. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2018.07.106
  38. Pengo V., Lensing A.W.A., Prins M.H., Marchiori A., Davidson B.L., Tiozzo F., Albanese P., Biasiolo A., Pegoraro C., Iliceto S., Prandoni P., Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension Study Group. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(22):2257-2264. PMID: 15163775. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa032274
  39. Becattini C., Agnelli G., Pesavento R., Silingardi M., Poggio R., Taliani M.R., Ageno W. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after a first episode of pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2006;130(1):172-175. PMID: 16840398. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.130.1.172
  40. Ende-Verhaar Y.M., Cannegieter S.C., Vonk Noordegraaf A., Delcroix M., Pruszczyk P., Mairuhu A.T.A., Huisman M.V., Klok F.A. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism: a contemporary view of the published literature. Eur Respir J. 2017;49(2):1601792. PMID: 28232411. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01792-2016
  41. Escribano-Subias P., Blanco I., López-Meseguer M., Lopez-Guarch C.J., Roman A., Morales P., Castillo-Palma M.J., Segovia J., Gómez-Sanchez M.A., Barberà J.A. Survival in pulmonary hypertension in Spain: insights from the Spanish registry. Eur Respir J. 2012;40(3):596-603. PMID: 22362843. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00101211
  42. Condliffe R., Kiely D.G., Gibbs J.S.R., Corris P.A., Peacock A.J., Jenkins D.P., Hodgkins D., Goldsmith K., Hughes R.J., Sheares K., Tsui S.S.L., Armstrong I.J., Torpy C., Crackett R., Carlin C.M., Das C., Coghlan J.G., Pepke-Zaba J. Improved outcomes in medically and surgically treated chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(10):1122-1127. PMID: 18292468. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200712-1841OC
  43. Stein P.D., Henry J.W. Prevalence of acute pulmonary embolism among patients in a general hospital and at autopsy. Chest. 1995;108(4):978-981. PMID: 7555172. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.108.4.978
  44. Васильцева О.Я., Васильцев Я.С., Ворожцова И.Н., Дроздов В.Ф., Крестинин А.В., Карпов Р.С. Диагностика тромбоэмболии ветвей легочной артерии в стационарах Томска в 2003–2007 гг. по данным патолого-анатомических вскрытий. Терапевтический архив. 2010;82(4):42-44. [Vasiltseva O.Y., Vasiltsev Y.S., Vorozhtsova I.N., Drozdov V.F., Krestinin A.V., Karpov R.S. Diagnosis of thromboembolism of the pulmonary artery branches at Tomsk hospitals in 2003–2007 according to autopsy data. Terapevticheskii arkhiv = Therapeutic archive. 2010;82(4):42-44. (In Russ.)]
  45. Galiè N., Humbert M., Vachiery J.-L., Gibbs S., Lang I., Torbicki A., Simonneau G., Peacock A., Vonk Noordegraaf A., Beghetti M., Ghofrani A., Gomez Sanchez M.A., Hansmann G., Klepetko W., Lancellotti P., Matucci M., McDonagh T., Pierard L.A., Trindade P.T., Zompatori M., Hoeper M., ESC Scientific Document Group. 2015 ESC / ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS): Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC), International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(1):67-119. PMID: 26320113. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv317
  46. Remy-Jardin M., Louvegny S., Remy J., Artaud D., Deschildre F., Bauchart J.J., Thery C., Duhamel A. Acute central thromboembolic disease: posttherapeutic follow-up with spiral CT angiography. Radiology. 1997;203(1):173-180. PMID: 9122389. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.203.1.9122389
  47. Aluja Jaramillo F., Gutierrez F.R., Díaz Telli F.G., Yevenes Aravena S., Javidan-Nejad C., Bhalla S. Approach to pulmonary hypertension: from CT to clinical diagnosis. Radiographics. 2018;38(2):357-373. PMID: 29432063. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2018170046
  48. Sista A.K., Klok F.A. Late outcomes of pulmonary embolism: the post-PE syndrome. Thromb Res. 2018;164:157-162. PMID: 28641836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2017.06.017
  49. Klok F.A., Tesche C., Rappold L., Dellas C., Hasenfuß G., Huisman M.V., Konstantinides S., Lankeit M. External validation of a simple non-invasive algorithm to rule out chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res. 2015;135(5):796-801. PMID: 25746363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2014.12.009
  50. Simonneau G., Torbicki A., Dorfmuller P., Kim N. The pathophysiology of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir Rev. 2017;26(143):160112. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0112-2016